Chapter 18 Viruses Review Guide Answers Common Cold

Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 2018 : 199–202.e1.

The Common Cold

Guest Editor (s): Sarah South. Long, Dr.

Professor of Pediatrics, Drexel Academy College of Medicine

Principal, Section of Infectious Diseases, St. Christopher'due south Hospital for Children, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Invitee Editor (due south): Charles G. Prober, MD

Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology, and Immunology, Senior Associate Dean for Medical Education, Stanford Academy School of Medicine, Stanford, California

Guest Editor (southward): Marc Fischer, Dr., MPH

Medical Epidemiologist, Arboviral Diseases Co-operative, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado

The mutual cold, as well known equally upper respiratory tract infection (URI), is an acute, self-limited viral infection of the upper airway that also may involve the lower respiratory tract. The characteristic symptom complex consisting of rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, and sore or scratchy throat is familiar to all adults.

Colds are the about mutual cause of human illness and are responsible for significant absenteeism from school and work. Children are peculiarly susceptible because they have not withal acquired immunity to many of the viruses, they have poor personal hygiene practices, and they accept frequent close contact with other children who are excreting virus.

Etiology

Colds are common because some of the causative viruses exercise not produce lasting amnesty later infection and some viruses accept numerous serotypes (Table 26.one ). Cold viruses that do not produce lasting immunity include respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), parainfluenza viruses (PIVs), and man coronaviruses (HCoVs). Common cold viruses that accept numerous serotypes but produce lasting serotype-specific immunity after infection include rhinoviruses, adenoviruses, influenza viruses, and enteroviruses.one

TABLE 26.ane

Immunity to Common Cold Viruses

Virus	No. of Serotypes
LONG-LASTING Immunity Non PRODUCED By INFECTION ^a
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)	1
Parainfluenza virus	iv
Human coronavirus	2

IMMUNITY PRODUCED BY INFECTION ^b
Rhinovirus	>100
Adenovirus	≥33
Influenza	3^c
Echovirus	31
Coxsackievirus grouping A	iii
Coxsackievirus grouping B	six

Modified from Hendley JO. Immunology of viral colds. In: Veldman JE, McCabe BF, Huizing EH, et al (eds). Immunobiology, Autoimmunity, Transplantation in Otorhinolaryngology. Amsterdam: Kugler Publications; 1985, pp. 257–260.

With at least 100 serotypes, rhinoviruses are the about mutual crusade of URIs in children and adults. At least l% of colds in adults are caused by rhinoviruses. Other viruses that crusade URIs are HCoVs, RSV, human metapneumovirus, influenza virus, parainfluenza viruses, adenoviruses, echoviruses, and coxsackieviruses A and B. Human bocavirus (HBoV), discovered in 2005, has been reported in children with symptomatic URIs (>ten%) but may also occur in asymptomatic children, making its function in causing illness unclear.2, 3, 4

Some viruses cause characteristic syndromes. For case, RSV causes bronchiolitis in children 2 years or younger, influenza viruses cause febrile respiratory illness with astringent lower respiratory tract involvement, adenoviruses cause pharyngoconjunctival fever, parainfluenza viruses cause croup in young children, HBoV is associated with wheezing, and enteroviruses cause a multifariousness of illnesses, including aseptic meningitis and herpangina.

Epidemiology

In temperate climates in the northern hemisphere, the predictable yearly epidemic of colds begins in September and continues unabated until leap. This sustained epidemic curve is a event of successive waves of different respiratory viruses moving through the community (Fig. 26.one ). The epidemic begins with a precipitous rise in the frequency of rhinovirus infections in September (afterwards children return to schoolhouse), which is followed past PIVs in October and November. RSV and HCoVs broadcast during the winter months, and infection due to flu virus peaks in the late wintertime. The epidemic ends with a pocket-sized resurgence of rhinovirus infections in the jump. Adenovirus infection occurs at a constant charge per unit throughout the cold season.

FIGURE 26.1

Schematic diagram of the incidence of colds and frequency of causative viruses. RSV, respiratory syncytial virus.

(Modified from Hendley JO. The common cold. In: Goldman L, Bennett JC (eds). Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 21st ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000, pp. 1790–1793.)

The frequency of colds varies with age. A ten-year study in the 1970s of families with children who did not nourish a childcare facility showed that the peak incidence of colds occurs in preschool children 1 to v years quondam, with a frequency of 7.four to viii.3 colds per twelvemonth.5 In a 52-week longitudinal report of 108 individuals in 26 households in Utah, which included diaries of illness and testing of weekly self-collected or family-collected anterior nares specimens by FilmArray, an automated polymerase chain reaction (PCR) system for virus detection, respiratory symptoms were identified for 38% of person-weeks for children younger than v years and 20% for older children and adults. Sixty percent of respiratory illnesses were associated with virus detection, but but approximately l% of virus detections were associated with symptoms (especially rhinovirus and bocavirus).6

Viral transmission occurs primarily in the habitation setting, although the verbal mechanism of spread has not been established. Colds can be spread by a small-particle (<v µm in bore) aerosol, which infects when inhaled; by big-particle (>x µm in diameter) droplets, which infect by landing on nasal or conjunctival mucosa; or by direct transfer through manus-to-paw contact.vii A small-particle aerosol is an effective method of transfer for flu virus8 and coronavirus9 but not for RSV.10 Rhinoviruses are about probable spread by large-particle droplets or directly transfer.

Rhinoviruses tin survive as long as 2 hours on man hands and up to several days on other surfaces. Studies accept shown that infected immature adults ordinarily take rhinovirus on their easily, which can be efficiently transferred to the hands of uninfected individuals during brief contact. Infection results when the uninfected person transfers the virus from the hands on to his or her nasal or conjunctival mucosa. Sneezing and cough are ineffective modes of rhinovirus manual,eleven although there is some evidence that the virus also can be transmitted past aerosols generated by coughing, talking, and breathing.12 Inoculation of the oral mucosa with rhinovirus13 or RSV14 does not effect in infection.

Pathogenesis

Symptoms of the common cold practice non appear to result from destruction of nasal mucosa because nasal biopsy specimens from young adults with natural and experimentally induced colds show intact nasal epithelium during symptomatic illness.15, 16 Study by in situ hybridization of nasal biopsy specimens obtained during rhinovirus infection indicates that replication occurs in simply a small number of epithelial cells.17, 18 In vitro studies have shown that rhinovirus and coronavirus produce no detectable cytopathic outcome when replicating in a cultured monolayer of nasal epithelial cells, whereas flu virus A and adenovirus produce obvious damage.xix

The symptoms of the common common cold appear to result from release of cytokines and other mediators from infected nasal epithelial cells and from an influx of polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs). Nasal washings of volunteers experimentally infected with rhinovirus showed a 100-fold increase in PMN concentration ane to 2 days after inoculation.xx The influx of PMNs coincides with the onset of symptoms and correlates with a colored nasal belch.21 A yellow or white nasal belch may result from the higher number of PMNs, whereas the enzymatic activity of PMNs (due to myeloperoxidase and other enzymes) may cause a dark-green nasal discharge.

A potent chemoattractant for PMNs is produced by cells in culture infected with rhinovirus.22 The chemoattractant has been identified as interleukin-8 (IL-eight).23 Elevated levels of IL-8 and other cytokines (due east.g., IL-1β, IL-half dozen) also take been demonstrated in the nasal secretions of infected individuals.24, 25 Elevated levels of albumin and kinins (predominantly bradykinin) in nasal secretions coincide with the onset of symptoms in experimental rhinovirus infection.20 The elevated concentration of albumin and kinins likely results from exudation of plasma proteins due to greater vascular permeability in the nasal submucosa. The method by which viral infection initiates this vascular leak has not been determined. The release of kinins resulting from plasma exudation may augment the symptoms of the cold. Bradykinin lone can cause rhinitis and sore pharynx when sprayed into the noses of uninfected individuals.26

The paranasal sinuses usually are involved during an simple common cold. In ane study, CT scans obtained during the astute phase of illness revealed abnormalities of one or more than sinuses in 27 (87%) of 31 young adults.27 Without antibody therapy, at that place was consummate resolution or marked improvement of the sinus abnormalities in 11 (79%) of the 14 subjects for whom 2nd CT scans were obtained 2 weeks afterwards. In another study, MRI revealed that threescore% of children with URIs had major abnormalities in their paranasal sinuses, which tended to resolve without antibiotic therapy.28 It is not known whether sinus abnormalities result from viral infection of the sinus mucosa or from impaired sinus drainage due to viral rhinitis. Nose bravado tin generate enough force per unit area to force fluid from the nasopharynx into the paranasal sinuses, suggesting that olfactory organ blowing may force fungus containing viruses, bacteria, and inflammatory mediators into the paranasal sinuses during a common cold.29

The middle ear can be involved during uncomplicated colds. Studies have shown that ii thirds of school-aged children develop aberrant middle ear pressures inside 2 weeks later on the onset of a cold.xxx Otitis media was not diagnosed during the report because ears were not examined, and none of the children sought medical care. Information technology is not known whether the abnormal middle ear pressures effect from viral infection of the mucosa of the middle ear and eustachian tube or from viral nasopharyngitis with secondary eustachian tube dysfunction.

Clinical Manifestations

Symptoms of the common cold do not vary past specific causative virus. In older children and adults, rhinorrhea, nasal obstacle, and sore or scratchy throat are typical. The rhinorrhea is initially articulate but may become colored as the disease proceeds, and patients can cough or sneeze. Fever (>38°C) is uncommon in adults. Other symptoms are malaise, sinus fullness, and hoarseness. Objective findings are minimal except for mild erythema of the nasal mucosa or pharynx. Symptoms resolve in 5 to 7 days.

Compared with adults, infants and preschool children with colds are more probable to accept fever (>38°C) and moderate enlargement of the inductive cervical lymph nodes (Table 26.two ).1 Rhinorrhea may not be noticed until the nasal discharge becomes colored. Nasal congestion tin disrupt sleep and atomic number 82 to fatigue and irritability. The illness often persists in infants and preschool children for 10 to 14 days.31

TABLE 26.2

Characteristics of Viral Colds in Adults and Young Children

Characteristic	Adults	Children <vi Years
Frequency	2–iv per year	I per calendar month, September–April
Fever	Rare	Common during first 3 days
Nasal manifestations	Congestion	Colored nasal discharge
Duration of illness	5–7 days	fourteen days

Modified from Hendley JO. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and handling of the common cold. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis 1998;9:50–55.

Differential Diagnosis

The differential diagnoses of a cold include allergic rhinitis, vasomotor rhinitis, intranasal foreign torso, and sinusitis. A diagnosis of allergic rhinitis is suggested past a seasonal pattern of clear rhinorrhea, absenteeism of associated fever, and family unit history of allergy. Possible associated conditions are asthma and eczema. Physical findings consequent with allergic rhinitis include allergic shiners (i.due east., dark circles under the eyes) and nasal salute (i.e., wiping or rubbing the nose with a transverse or upwardly movement of the hand).

Detection of numerous eosinophils on microscopic test of the nasal mucus using Hansel stain confirms the diagnosis of allergic rhinitis. A diagnosis of vasomotor rhinitis is suggested by a chronic grade without fever or sore throat. The diagnosis of bacterial sinusitis is suggested by persistent rhinorrhea or cough, or both, for more than 10 days.32

Clinical Approach

The diagnosis of a common cold is based on history and physical examination; typically, laboratory tests are non useful. The rapid examination for detecting RSV, influenza, parainfluenza, and adenovirus antigens in nasal secretions tin exist used to confirm the diagnosis. RSV, rhinovirus, influenza viruses, parainfluenza viruses, and adenoviruses also can be isolated in cell civilization. Considering HCoVs cannot be detected reliably in cell culture, a serologic titer superlative can be used for diagnosis if necessary.

PCR assays for detection of all the respiratory viruses are bachelor increasingly in clinical laboratories, but at that place is a lack of standardization and validation for many of the tests offered. Meaningful interpretation of PCR results remains challenging because PCR detection of virus can occur in several clinical scenarios, including coinfection with multiple viruses, viral detection during the incubation period, subclinical infection, infection with the identified virus, variable duration of viral shedding, and sequential infection with different serotypes of the same species.33 Other methods of detection can be used but are rarely needed.

Management

No antiviral agents are available that are effective for treatment of the common cold. Although an array of medications may exist used to salve symptoms, at that place is picayune scientific evidence to support the utilise of symptomatic treatments in children. Because the common cold is a cocky-express illness with symptomatology that is largely subjective, a substantial placebo effect tin suggest that various treatments have some efficacy. Inadequate blinding of placebo recipients in a study tin can make an ineffective treatment appear effective.

In adults with colds, first-generation antihistamines (eastward.g., chlorpheniramine) have been shown to provide small symptomatic relief, with decreases in nasal discharge, sneezing, nose blowing, and duration of symptoms,34 presumably considering of the anticholinergic furnishings of these medications. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled report of preschool children with URIs showed that handling with an antihistamine-decongestant combination (i.e., brompheniramine maleate and phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride) produced no improvement in cough, rhinorrhea, or nasal congestion, although a larger proportion of the treated children (47% vs. 26%) were comatose two hours afterwards treatment.35

Numerous decongestants, antitussives, and expectorants are available over the counter, but there is no evidence to support their use in children. A study of phenylephrine, a topical decongestant, for the treatment children 6 to 18 months old showed no decrease in nasal obstruction with its apply during a URI.36 In a study comparing placebo, dextromethorphan, and codeine for coughing suppression in children 18 months to 12 years erstwhile, cough decreased in all patients within 3 days, but there was no difference in cough reduction among the iii treatment groups.37 Guaifenesin, an expectorant, has not been shown to change the book or quality of sputum or the frequency of cough in immature adults with colds.38 Echinacea preparations, frequently thought to be effective in the treatment of the common cold, have no consequence on the prevention or handling of rhinovirus infection.39 Similarly, intranasal zinc gluconate has had no consequence for the treatment of colds40 or prevention of experimental rhinovirus colds.41 In January, 2008, the US Food and Drug Administration issued an informational strongly recommending that over-the-counter cold and coughing medications not be given to infants because of the risk of life-threatening side effects.

Antibiotics have no role in the handling of simple URIs in children. Antibiotic therapy does not hasten resolution of the viral infection or reduce the likelihood of occurrence of secondary bacterial infection.42 Antibiotics are indicated only in cases of secondary bacterial infection, such as sinusitis and acute otitis media.

Supportive measures remain the mainstay of handling for the mutual cold in children. Bulb suction with saline drops (i.eastward., ≈ane teaspoon of salt in ii cups of water) may help relieve nasal congestion and remove secretions. One report suggests that honey given at bedtime may assist reduce cough in children with URIs, although honey is not recommended for children younger than 12 months because of the risk of exposure to Clostridium botulinum spores.43 Vapor rub applied to the chest and neck of children between the ages of 2 and 11 years may help reduce nighttime cough.44

Complications

The common cold ordinarily resolves in almost 10 to 14 days in infants and children. New-onset fever and earache during this period may herald the development of bacterial otitis media, which occurs in near five% of colds in preschool children. Persistence of nasal symptoms for longer than 10 days was thought to signify the evolution of a secondary bacterial sinusitis, but a study establish that 20 children hospitalized for preseptal or orbital cellulitis, indicative of bacterial sinusitis, had symptoms of acute respiratory tract infection for seven or fewer days earlier hospitalization, suggesting that the complications of rhinosinusitis can occur during the first few days of a common cold.45

Bacterial pneumonia is an uncommon secondary infection. For children with underlying reactive airways illness, wheezing is mutual during the course of a viral URI; at least fifty% of asthma exacerbations in children are associated with viral infection. Children who experience more than than one lower respiratory tract infection (e.one thousand., croup, bronchiolitis) during their first year of life accept an increased hazard of asthma thereafter.46 Other complications are epistaxis, eustachian tube dysfunction, conjunctivitis, and pharyngitis.

Recent Advances

Symptoms of the common common cold appear to event from the furnishings of inflammatory mediators released in response to the viral infection of the respiratory tract. As the determinants of this process are farther elucidated, treatments may be developed that can interrupt or ameliorate release of inflammatory mediators and prevent or reduce the symptoms of the common cold. Vaccines are unlikely to be useful for prevention considering of the large number of serotypes of some cold viruses and the lack of lasting immunity to others.

The use of alcohol-based hand gels has been suggested as a means of reducing secondary manual of respiratory illnesses in the home,47 just this approach was not shown to be effective in one field trial.48 Virucidal tissues have been effective in preventing viral passage and transmission and may reduce secondary transmission by virtually 30%.49, 50 Until new methods are developed, prevention of the common common cold is express to fugitive self-inoculation (i.east., transfer of virus from contaminated fingers to nasal or conjunctival mucosa) past removing virus through handwashing or by killing virus with application of a virucide to the hands.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to highlight the dominant contribution of J. Owen Hendley to our understanding of respiratory viruses and to this affiliate. The pediatric infectious diseases community recognizes our groovy loss with his death.

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